Now available: FAQ on Romania’s forests and FSC's standard-setting processes

Following reports raising concerns about Romania's forests, FSC has prepared FAQs to address common questions about certificate holders in the country.  

We recognize the importance of providing clear context. At the same time, responsible forestry rarely comes down to simple answers; it requires a deep understanding of local ecosystems, relevant risks, community needs and long-term forest health. We want to be clear: we are on the same side of those working to protect forests and support their resilience. We welcome open and constructive dialogue, and our system is designed to ensure that any complaint raised with us is thoroughly reviewed.  

Frequently Asked Questions:  

Q: What is an ancient, old-growth, and primary forest? 

A: While there is no single, universal agreed-upon definition for these terms, and they are often used interchangeably – and sometimes incorrectly – in public debate, here are some helpful indicators to distinguish among the different kinds of forests.  

Primary or virgin forests are shaped mainly by natural processes, with no (virgin forests) or negligible (quasi-virgin forests) human intervention. 

In 2012, Romania established criteria to identify and map the country's virgin and quasi-virgin forests. Forests that meet these criteria are listed in a national catalogue and are subject to strict protection requirements. FSC certificate holders managing forests included in this catalogue must comply with national legal requirements for their conservation. 

Old-growth forests may also be included in this protected national catalogue when they meet the relevant criteria. These are forests that have reached a late stage of development and may include very old trees, deadwood, multiple canopy layers, and diverse species composition. These trees’ value lies not only in age, but in the ecological continuity and habitat features that have developed over long periods of limited human disturbance. Where old-growth forests are included in Romania's national catalogue of protected forests, timber harvesting and sourcing is prohibited. 

However, age alone does not determine whether a forest is old-growth. This is why these forests should be identified through scientific indicators, not only by appearance or public perception.  

Managed forests may also include very old trees, but they are managed for environmental, social or economic goals, including wood production. When managed responsibly, these forests can also support biodiversity by maintaining habitat, protecting rare and threatened species, conserving waterways and soil and ensuring harvesting is carefully planned so that ecosystems can continue to regenerate.  

“Ancient forest” is a broader term often used in public debate, but it is not defined by FSC as a technical forest category.  

This is why terminology matters: an old managed forest is not automatically the same as a primary or old-growth forest, and conservation measures should be based on agreed ecological criteria, not tree age alone. For more information, please visit our dedicated webpage on preserving old-growth forests in Romania.  

Q: Who is responsible for setting FSC's responsible forestry standards? 

A: FSC has global Principles and Criteria that apply everywhere. These are set by FSC's international members through a formal, democratic governance process. The members represent the environmental, social and economic chambers, with each chamber having equal voting weight. Voting weight is also balanced geographically.  

This means businesses are part of FSC’s decision-making, and so are environmental organizations, social groups, Indigenous Peoples, and local communities, among others. FSC's model was created this way to ensure responsible forest management standards were created with input from those who protect forests, those who depend on them and those who use forest products. 

Based on the approved Principles & Criteria, FSC developed the International Generic Indicators to help translate how these high-level criteria can be applied and measured in practice.  

These indicators are then either adopted into national or regional Forest Stewardship Standards or adapted to reflect local forest types, legal requirements, ecological conditions, ownership structures and social contexts. FSC’s global Principles and Criteria remain the foundation, while national and regional standards translate them into locally relevant indicators that can be applied and assessed in practice.  

At the national level, FSC Forest Stewardship Standards are developed by national standard development groups who also represent social, economic and environmental interests, and they are then subject to approval by FSC International representatives, to ensure national standards still align with FSC's global requirements. 

Q: Are FSC standards for Romania less stringent than other countries? 

A: No. FSC national standards are not intended to be identical across every country, but rather, they are an adaptation of International Generic Indicators to forest types, protected species and habitats, national legislation, land tenure and ownership structures, community rights, labor conditions, customary use, management traditions, risk levels and the scale and intensity of forest operations.  

While FSC standards must be compatible with national law, they are not limited to legal compliance. FSC contributes with requirements that often go beyond legislation, especially on biodiversity, workers rights, stakeholder engagement, monitoring, transparency and safeguards against conversion and degradation. 

National standards are developed through months – and sometimes years – of engagement processes with local stakeholders including environmental groups and local communities and undergo rigorous reviews by FSC before they are approved. 

Q: What safeguards are in place to prevent undue influences from industries in the FSC system? 

A: FSC was created to bring environmental, social and economic groups into one governance system, and has mechanisms specifically designed to prevent any single interest group or industry from dominating decision-making.   

FSC's standards, policies and priorities are set by its international members, who meet every three years to vote on motions, engage in dialogue and guide the strategic direction of the organization. Decision-making processes are intended to give equal weight to each of the chambers, rather than allowing decisions to be driven by any single sector or market interest.  

Additionally, FSC has established a layered assurance framework that is intended to safeguard the integrity of our system and help manage potential conflicts of interest. FSC certificate holders are regularly audited by independent certification bodies to verify compliance with FSC standards. These certification bodies are, in turn, overseen by Assurance Services International (ASI), a third-party assurance partner responsible for checking that audits are conducted properly. ASI may also be commissioned by FSC to investigate specific integrity risks. FSC does not influence audit findings or certification decisions at any level of the assurance process.  

Q: What are some of the key risks and challenges associated with forest management in Romania, and how does FSC certification help address them? 

A: FSC has previously recognized corruption as one of the risks that can affect Romania's forestry sector. This was identified in FSC's recently published Risk Assessment Framework for Romania, which was developed over a 12-month period through consultation with a broad range of stakeholders, including local experts, environmental specialists, academic researchers and forestry practitioners.  

The assessment does not look at FSC-certified forests alone, and instead considers wider country-level factors such as legal frameworks, enforcement, governance, timber controls and other conditions that can affect responsible forest management.  

FSC certification helps address these risks by requiring certified forest managers to comply with legal, environmental and social requirements, and by subjecting all certified operations to independent audits and oversight mechanisms designed to verify compliance.  

Q: How does FSC investigate allegations that certified companies may be sourcing wood from illegally-logged or protected areas? 

A: When there are concerns raised regarding FSC-certified companies’ practices, including sourcing decisions, several layers of review may be triggered. These include certification body audits, stakeholder interviews, ASI investigations, supply chain analyses, field verification, transaction verification and, where credible evidence is found of a violation of FSC standards, companies may face suspension or termination of their FSC certificates. 

Q: Is clear-cutting the same as deforestation? 

A: No, clear-cutting and deforestation are not the same thing – and in some cases, clear-cutting is part of the responsible management required to maintain healthy and thriving forests.  

Deforestation means a forest is converted to another land use, for example, agriculture or development purposes.  

Clear-cutting, by contrast, is a harvesting method in which most or all trees in a defined area are removed, but the land remains dedicated for forest use and is left untouched to allow for tree regeneration.  Clear-cutting may be permitted or prohibited depending on the country, forest type, and ecosystem. In some contexts — particularly where forests need regeneration, where tree stands are too dense or facing risks such as pests or wildfires — removing  a group of trees is an important part of responsible forest management. 

FSC prohibits the conversion of natural forests to non-forest uses, and clear-cutting is only allowed under specific conditions set by national standards, legal requirements and environmental safeguards. Whether a particular clear-cut is acceptable depends on the forest type, site conditions, regeneration requirements and protection of high conservation values. The key distinction is not simply whether trees are harvested, but whether the forest remains a forest and is managed for long-term health, regeneration, biodiversity and community value.  

Under FSC requirements, any permitted clear-cutting must be planned, controlled and designed to minimize environmental harm and protect high conservation values. For more information on FSC’s position on clear-cutting, please visit the dedicated webpage.  

Q: Why is forest certification an important part of protecting forests? 

A: Forest certification is not a replacement for strong law enforcement or legally protected areas, but it is an important tool for improving how forests are managed.  

Many forests provide wood, livelihoods and local economic value. The key question is therefore not simply whether they are used, but how responsibly they are managed. FSC certification sets requirements for community engagement, conservation areas, high conservation values and long-term forest health. It also provides mechanisms for independent audits, complaints, corrective action and market accountability.  

Q: Does FSC certify degraded forests? 

A: FSC can certify forests that have been degraded in the past if they are now managed in line with FSC requirements and there is a credible path to improving forest values.  

FSC certification does not mean a forest is untouched, or pristine. It means the forest is managed according to rigorous requirements for responsible management, legal compliance, protection of high conservation values, regeneration, monitoring and continuous improvement.  

In some cases, FSC certification can support the recovery of degraded areas by requiring better planning, safeguards and accountability. However, if the degradation results from ongoing non-conformity with FSC standards, corrective action would then be required.